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<title>Freezing-point depression</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Freezing-point depression</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the phenomenon caused by solutes. For the phenomenon in pure fluids, see <a href="Supercooling" title="Supercooling">supercooling</a>.</div>

<p><b>Freezing-point depression</b> is a drop in the maximum temperature at which a substance <a href="Freezing" title="Freezing">freezes</a>, caused when a smaller amount of another, non-<a href="Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatile</a> substance is added. Examples include adding salt into water (used in <a href="Ice_cream_maker" title="Ice cream maker">ice cream makers</a> and for <a href="De-icing" class="mw-redirect" title="De-icing">de-icing roads</a>), <a href="Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a> in water, <a href="Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">ethylene</a> or <a href="Propylene_glycol" title="Propylene glycol">propylene glycol</a> in water (used in <a href="Antifreeze" title="Antifreeze">antifreeze</a> in cars), adding <a href="Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> to molten <a href="Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> (used to make <a href="Solder#Hard_solder" title="Solder">solder</a> that flows at a lower temperature than the silver pieces being joined), or the mixing of two solids such as impurities into a finely powdered drug.

</p><p>In all cases, the substance added/present in smaller amounts is considered the <a href="Solute" class="mw-redirect" title="Solute">solute</a>, while the original substance present in larger quantity is thought of as the <a href="Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>. The resulting liquid solution or solid-solid mixture has a lower <a href="Melting_point" title="Melting point">freezing point</a> than the pure solvent or solid because the <a href="Chemical_potential" title="Chemical potential">chemical potential</a> of the solvent in the mixture is lower than that of the pure solvent, the difference between the two being proportional to the <a href="Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">natural logarithm</a> of the <a href="Mole_fraction" title="Mole fraction">mole fraction</a>. In a similar manner, the chemical potential of the vapor above the solution is lower than that above a pure solvent, which results in <a href="Boiling-point_elevation" title="Boiling-point elevation">boiling-point elevation</a>. Freezing-point depression is what causes <a href="Sea_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea water">sea water</a> (a mixture of salt and other compounds in water) to remain liquid at temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F), the freezing point of pure water.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanation">Explanation</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Using_vapour_pressure">Using vapour pressure</h3></div>

<p>The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid solvent and solid solvent are at equilibrium, so that their <a href="Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressures</a> are equal. When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile liquid solvent, the solution vapour pressure will be lower than that of the pure solvent. As a result, the solid will reach equilibrium with the solution at a lower temperature than with the pure solvent.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explanation in terms of vapor pressure is equivalent to the argument based on chemical potential, since the chemical potential of a vapor is logarithmically related to pressure. All of the <a href="Colligative_properties" title="Colligative properties">colligative properties</a> result from a lowering of the chemical potential of the solvent in the presence of a solute. This lowering is an <a href="Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> effect. The greater randomness of the solution (as compared to the pure solvent) acts in opposition to freezing, so that a lower temperature must be reached, over a broader range, before equilibrium between the liquid solution and <a href="Solid_solution" title="Solid solution">solid solution</a> phases is achieved. Melting point determinations are commonly exploited in <a href="Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a> to aid in identifying substances and to ascertain their purity.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Due_to_concentration_and_entropy">Due to concentration and entropy</h3></div>

<p>In the liquid solution, the solvent is diluted by the addition of a solute, so that fewer molecules are available to freeze (a lower concentration of solvent exists in a solution versus pure solvent). Re-establishment of equilibrium is achieved at a lower temperature at which the rate of freezing becomes equal to the rate of liquefying. The solute is not occluding or preventing the solvent from solidifying, it is simply diluting it so there is a reduced probability of a solvent making an attempt at freezing in any given moment.

</p><p>At the lower freezing point, the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the vapor pressure of the corresponding solid, and the chemical potentials of the two phases are equal as well.

</p>

<p>The phenomenon of freezing-point depression has many practical uses. The radiator fluid in an automobile is a mixture of water and <a href="Antifreeze" title="Antifreeze">ethylene glycol</a>. The freezing-point depression prevents radiators from freezing in winter. Road salting takes advantage of this effect to lower the freezing point of the ice it is placed on. Lowering the freezing point allows the street ice to melt at lower temperatures, preventing the accumulation of dangerous, slippery ice. Commonly used <a href="Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> can depress the freezing point of water to about −21 °C (−6 °F). If the road surface temperature is lower, NaCl becomes ineffective and other salts are used, such as <a href="Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a>, <a href="Magnesium_chloride" title="Magnesium chloride">magnesium chloride</a> or a mixture of many. These salts are somewhat aggressive to metals, especially iron, so in airports safer media such as <a href="Sodium_formate" title="Sodium formate">sodium formate</a>, <a href="Potassium_formate" title="Potassium formate">potassium formate</a>, <a href="Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a>, and <a href="Potassium_acetate" title="Potassium acetate">potassium acetate</a> are used instead.

</p>

<p>Freezing-point depression is used by some organisms that live in extreme cold. Such creatures have <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> means through which they can produce a high concentration of various compounds such as <a href="Sorbitol" title="Sorbitol">sorbitol</a> and <a href="Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>. This elevated concentration of solute decreases the freezing point of the water inside them, preventing the organism from freezing solid even as the water around them freezes, or as the air around them becomes very cold. Examples of organisms that produce antifreeze compounds include some species of <a href="Arctic" title="Arctic">arctic</a>-living <a href="Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> such as the <a href="Rainbow_smelt" title="Rainbow smelt">rainbow smelt</a>, which produces glycerol and other molecules to survive in frozen-over estuaries during the winter months.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other animals, such as the <a href="Spring_peeper" title="Spring peeper">spring peeper</a> frog (<i>Pseudacris crucifer</i>), the molality is increased temporarily as a reaction to cold temperatures. In the case of the peeper frog, freezing temperatures trigger a large-scale breakdown of <a href="Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a> in the frog's liver and subsequent release of massive amounts of <a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> into the blood.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

With the formula below, freezing-point depression can be used to measure the degree of <a href="Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociation</a> or the <a href="Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> of the solute. This kind of measurement is called <b>cryoscopy</b> (<a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <i>cryo</i> = cold, <i>scopos</i> = observe; "observe the cold"<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and relies on exact measurement of the freezing point. The degree of dissociation is measured by determining the <a href="Van_'t_Hoff_factor" title="Van 't Hoff factor">van 't Hoff factor</a> <i>i</i> by first determining <i>m</i><sub>B</sub> and then comparing it to <i>m</i><sub>solute</sub>. In this case, the molar mass of the solute must be known. The molar mass of a solute is determined by comparing <i>m</i><sub>B</sub> with the amount of solute dissolved. In this case, <i>i</i> must be known, and the procedure is primarily useful for organic compounds using a nonpolar solvent. Cryoscopy is no longer as common a measurement method as it once was, but it was included in textbooks at the turn of the 20th century. As an example, it was still taught as a useful analytic procedure in Cohen's <i>Practical Organic Chemistry </i> of 1910,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the <a href="Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> of <a href="Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">naphthalene</a> is determined using a <i>Beckmann freezing apparatus</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laboratory_uses">Laboratory uses</h3></div>

<p>Freezing-point depression can also be used as a purity analysis tool when analyzed by <a href="Differential_scanning_calorimetry" title="Differential scanning calorimetry">differential scanning calorimetry</a>. The results obtained are in mol%, but the method has its place, where other methods of analysis fail.

</p><p>In the laboratory, <a href="Lauric_acid" title="Lauric acid">lauric acid</a> may be used to investigate the <a href="Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> of an unknown substance via the freezing-point depression. The choice of lauric acid is convenient because the melting point of the pure compound is relatively high (43.8 °C). Its <a href="Cryoscopic_constant" title="Cryoscopic constant">cryoscopic constant</a> is 3.9 °C·kg/mol. By melting lauric acid with the unknown substance, allowing it to cool, and recording the temperature at which the mixture freezes, the molar mass of the unknown compound may be determined.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>This is also the same principle acting in the melting-point depression observed when the melting point of an impure solid mixture is measured with a <a href="Melting-point_apparatus" title="Melting-point apparatus">melting-point apparatus</a> since melting and freezing points both refer to the liquid-solid <a href="Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> (albeit in different directions).

</p><p>In principle, the boiling-point elevation and the freezing-point depression could be used interchangeably for this purpose. However, the <a href="Cryoscopic_constant" title="Cryoscopic constant">cryoscopic constant</a> is larger than the <a href="Ebullioscopic_constant" title="Ebullioscopic constant">ebullioscopic constant</a>, and the freezing point is often easier to measure with precision, which means measurements using the freezing-point depression are more precise.

</p><p>FPD measurements are also used in the dairy industry to ensure that milk has not had extra water added. Milk with a FPD of over 0.509 °C is considered to be unadulterated.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formula">Formula</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="For_dilute_solution">For dilute solution</h3></div>

<p>If the solution is treated as an <a href="Ideal_solution" title="Ideal solution">ideal solution</a>, the extent of freezing-point depression depends only on the solute concentration that can be estimated by a simple linear relationship with the cryoscopic constant ("<a href="Charles_Blagden" title="Charles Blagden">Blagden</a>'s Law").

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<mtext>Moles of dissolved species</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}\propto {\frac {\text{Moles of dissolved species}}{\text{Mass of solvent}}}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./fd108ba4d570426a880359e3531c29d8f74081da.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:33.872ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}\propto {\frac {\text{Moles of dissolved species}}{\text{Mass of solvent}}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}=K_{f}bi}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./1835b646697418f81fb8a587ce21607b00a88b5e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:12.438ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}=K_{f}bi}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>

<p>where:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./a81ed9fbdd3816c282d02800c195abf083cc5d17.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.43ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}}" loading="lazy"></span> is the decrease in freezing point, defined as the freezing point <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{f}^{0}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{f}^{0}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./837f1859242e2267f004ba115e6d8ecbdcc11306.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:2.774ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{f}^{0}}" loading="lazy"></span> of the pure solvent minus the freezing point <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{f}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{f}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./dbb8cb970fa8b6a14c3edcbd6951437428003b50.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.494ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{f}}" loading="lazy"></span> of the solution, as the formula above results in a positive value given that all factors are positive. From the <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./a81ed9fbdd3816c282d02800c195abf083cc5d17.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.43ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta T_{f}}" loading="lazy"></span> calculated using the formula above, the freezing point of the solution can then be calculated as <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{f}=T_{f}^{0}-\Delta T_{f}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{f}=T_{f}^{0}-\Delta T_{f}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./fbaa068f191bf25dc1867183e6751b174bc922f5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:15.637ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{f}=T_{f}^{0}-\Delta T_{f}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K_{f}}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./3900396f45aad0fe4532a59077aa070eba64b346.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.109ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K_{f}}" loading="lazy"></span>, the <a href="Cryoscopic_constant" title="Cryoscopic constant">cryoscopic constant</a>, which is dependent on the properties of the solvent, not the solute. (Note: When conducting experiments, a higher <i>k</i> value makes it easier to observe larger drops in the freezing point.)</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}" loading="lazy"></span> is the <a href="Molality" title="Molality">molality</a> (moles of solute per kilogram of solvent)</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}" loading="lazy"></span> is the <a href="Van_'t_Hoff_factor" title="Van 't Hoff factor">van 't Hoff factor</a> (number of ion particles per formula unit of solute, e.g. i = 2 for NaCl, 3 for BaCl<sub>2</sub>).</li></ul>

<p>Some values of the cryoscopic constant <i>K</i><sub>f</sub> for selected solvents:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<th>Compound</th>

<th>Freezing point (°C)</th>

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<td><a href="Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">Acetic acid</a></td>

<td>3.90

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a></td>

<td>5.12

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Camphor" title="Camphor">Camphor</a></td>

<td>39.7

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Carbon_disulfide" title="Carbon disulfide">Carbon disulfide</a></td>

<td>3.8

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">Carbon tetrachloride</a></td>

<td>30

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Chloroform" title="Chloroform">Chloroform</a></td>

<td>4.68

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Cyclohexane" title="Cyclohexane">Cyclohexane</a></td>

<td>20.2

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Ethanol" title="Ethanol">Ethanol</a></td>

<td>1.99

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Ethyl_ether" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl ether">Ethyl ether</a></td>

<td>1.79

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">Naphthalene</a></td>

<td>6.9

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Phenol" title="Phenol">Phenol</a></td>

<td>7.27

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Water" title="Water">Water</a></td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="For_concentrated_solution">For concentrated solution</h3></div>

<p>The simple relation above doesn't consider the nature of the solute, so it is only effective in a diluted solution. For a more accurate calculation at a higher concentration, for ionic solutes, Ge and Wang (2010)<sup id="cite_ref-GeWang2009-1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeWang2009-1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed a new equation:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta T_{\text{F}}={\frac {\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}}-2RT_{\text{F}}\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}-{\sqrt {2\Delta C_{p}^{\text{fus}}T_{\text{F}}^{2}R\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}+(\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}})^{2}}}}{2\left({\frac {\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}}}{T_{\text{F}}}}+{\frac {\Delta C_{p}^{\text{fus}}}{2}}-R\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}\right)}}.}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./4647a4a72ea7c1e8cfd7e2248e82248796475f34.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -6.171ex; width:67.385ex; height:12.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta T_{\text{F}}={\frac {\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}}-2RT_{\text{F}}\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}-{\sqrt {2\Delta C_{p}^{\text{fus}}T_{\text{F}}^{2}R\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}+(\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}})^{2}}}}{2\left({\frac {\Delta H_{T_{\text{F}}}^{\text{fus}}}{T_{\text{F}}}}+{\frac {\Delta C_{p}^{\text{fus}}}{2}}-R\cdot \ln a_{\text{liq}}\right)}}.}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>

<p>In the above equation, <i>T</i><sub>F</sub> is the normal freezing point of the pure solvent (273 K for water, for example); <i>a</i><sub>liq</sub> is the activity of the solvent in the solution (water activity for aqueous solution); Δ<i>H</i><sup>fus</sup><sub>T<sub>F</sub></sub> is the enthalpy change of fusion of the pure solvent at <i>T</i><sub>F</sub>, which is 333.6 J/g for water at 273 K; Δ<i>C</i><sup>fus</sup><sub>p</sub> is the difference between the heat capacities of the liquid and solid phases at <i>T</i><sub>F</sub>, which is 2.11 J/(g·K) for water.

</p><p>The solvent activity can be calculated from the <a href="Pitzer_equations" title="Pitzer equations">Pitzer model</a> or modified <a href="TCPC_model" class="mw-redirect" title="TCPC model">TCPC model</a>, which typically requires 3 adjustable parameters. For the TCPC model, these parameters are available<sup id="cite_ref-GeWang2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeWang2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GeZhang2008-1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeZhang2008-1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GeZhang2008-2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeZhang2008-2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GeWang2009-2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeWang2009-2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for many single salts.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethanol_example">Ethanol example</h2></div>

<p>The freezing point of ethanol water mixture is shown in the following graph.

</p><p>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Melting-point_depression" title="Melting-point depression">Melting-point depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Boiling-point_elevation" title="Boiling-point elevation">Boiling-point elevation</a></li>

<li><a href="Colligative_properties" title="Colligative properties">Colligative properties</a></li>

<li><a href="Deicing" title="Deicing">Deicing</a></li>

<li><a href="Eutectic_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic point">Eutectic point</a></li>

<li><a href="Frigorific_mixture" title="Frigorific mixture">Frigorific mixture</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents" title="List of boiling and freezing information of solvents">List of boiling and freezing information of solvents</a></li>

<li><a href="Snow_removal" title="Snow removal">Snow removal</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><div id="Chemical_solutions144" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">Chemical solutions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">Solution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ideal_solution" title="Ideal solution">Ideal solution</a></li>

<li><a href="Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">Aqueous solution</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_solution" title="Solid solution">Solid solution</a></li>

<li><a href="Buffer_solution" title="Buffer solution">Buffer solution</a></li>

<li><a href="Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory" title="Flory–Huggins solution theory">Flory–Huggins</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixture" title="Mixture">Mixture</a></li>

<li><a href="Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">Suspension</a></li>

<li><a href="Colloid" title="Colloid">Colloid</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">Phase diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase_separation" title="Phase separation">Phase separation</a></li>

<li><a href="Eutectic_system" title="Eutectic system">Eutectic point</a></li>

<li><a href="Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloy</a></li>

<li><a href="Saturation_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation concentration">Saturation</a></li>

<li><a href="Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">Supersaturation</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_dilution" title="Serial dilution">Serial dilution</a></li>

<li><a href="Dilution_(equation)" title="Dilution (equation)">Dilution (equation)</a></li>

<li><a href="Apparent_molar_property" title="Apparent molar property">Apparent molar property</a></li>

<li><a href="Miscibility_gap" title="Miscibility gap">Miscibility gap</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concentration" title="Concentration">Concentration</a><br>and related quantities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Molar_concentration" title="Molar concentration">Molar concentration</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_concentration_(chemistry)" title="Mass concentration (chemistry)">Mass concentration</a></li>

<li><a href="Number_density" title="Number density">Number concentration</a></li>

<li><a href="Volume_fraction" title="Volume fraction">Volume concentration</a></li>

<li><a href="Equivalent_concentration" title="Equivalent concentration">Normality</a></li>

<li><a href="Molality" title="Molality">Molality</a></li>

<li><a href="Mole_fraction" title="Mole fraction">Mole fraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_fraction_(chemistry)" title="Mass fraction (chemistry)">Mass fraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">Isotopic abundance</a></li>

<li><a href="Mixing_ratio" title="Mixing ratio">Mixing ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Ternary_plot" title="Ternary plot">Ternary plot</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_dissolved_solids" title="Total dissolved solids">Total dissolved solids</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Solubility" title="Solubility">Solubility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Solubility_equilibrium" title="Solubility equilibrium">Solubility equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Solvation" title="Solvation">Solvation</a></li>

<li><a href="Solvation_shell" title="Solvation shell">Solvation shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Enthalpy_change_of_solution" title="Enthalpy change of solution">Enthalpy of solution</a></li>

<li><a href="Lattice_energy" title="Lattice energy">Lattice energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Raoult's_law" title="Raoult's law">Raoult's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry's_law" title="Henry's law">Henry's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Solubility_table" title="Solubility table">Solubility table (data)</a></li>

<li><a href="Solubility_chart" title="Solubility chart">Solubility chart</a></li>

<li><a href="Miscibility" title="Miscibility">Miscibility</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Solvent" title="Solvent">Solvent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>(Category)</li>

<li><a href="Acid_dissociation_constant" title="Acid dissociation constant">Acid dissociation constant</a></li>

<li><a href="Protic_solvent" title="Protic solvent">Protic solvent</a></li>

<li><a href="Polar_aprotic_solvent" title="Polar aprotic solvent">Polar aprotic solvent</a></li>

<li><a href="Inorganic_nonaqueous_solvent" title="Inorganic nonaqueous solvent">Inorganic nonaqueous solvent</a></li>

<li><a href="Solvation" title="Solvation">Solvation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents" title="List of boiling and freezing information of solvents">List of boiling and freezing information of solvents</a></li>

<li><a href="Partition_coefficient" title="Partition coefficient">Partition coefficient</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">Polarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">Hydrophobe</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydrophile" title="Hydrophile">Hydrophile</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipophilicity" title="Lipophilicity">Lipophilic</a></li>

<li><a href="Amphiphile" title="Amphiphile">Amphiphile</a></li>

<li><a href="Lyonium_ion" title="Lyonium ion">Lyonium ion</a></li>

<li><a href="Lyate_ion" title="Lyate ion">Lyate ion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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